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Buddhas
The historical Buddha, often called Shakyamuni (“Sage of the Shakyas”) in later times, was born into an elite family of the Shakya clan, whose territory lay on what is now the border between northeastern India and Nepal. Traditionally, the date of his birth was believed to be 563 B.C.E., but some sources suggest that he was born as much as a century later. After a long search for enlightenment, he sat under a tree to meditate and in the course of one night finally reached nirvana, becoming a buddha. He passed away at the age of eighty. In some Buddhist traditions, in addition to the historical Buddha, there are buddhas who existed in previous ages and buddhas who will appear in the future.
Buddhism began to spread dramatically more than a century after the historical Buddha’s death. A Sri Lankan chronicle compiled in the sixth century C.E. records that the Indian emperor Ashoka (reign ca. 268-232 B.C.E.), sent missionaries to the “land of gold,” which scholars believe was in Southeast Asia. The form of Buddhism known as Theravada, which emphasizes a monastic path to enlightenment, was adopted in Sri Lanka and subsequently became the predominant form of Buddhism in Southeast Asia. Mahayana Buddhist doctrine, which argues that a wider group of followers including members of the laity can become enlightened, also had a presence in both South and Southeast Asia. Another movement in this region was Vajrayana (Esoteric) Buddhism, which stresses attaining union with cosmic aspects of Buddhahood through ritual and meditation. By the seventh century, Buddhism was a major religious force across South, East, and Southeast Asia.
Interaction among these regions continued to impact Buddhist practice and artistic production. For example, Kashmir was an important source for the propagation of Buddhism and Buddhist art traditions in Tibet in the late tenth and early eleventh centuries.
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Buddha Shakyamuni Bodh Gaya, the site of the Buddha’s enlightenment, was an immensely popular pilgrimage site among Buddhists both within and outside India. Here the Buddha makes the earth-touching gesture (bhumisparsha mudra) beneath the leaves of the pipal tree, under which he sat and meditated before his enlightenment. This image epitomizes the style that developed under the Pala dynasty, which ruled much of eastern India from the eighth to the twelfth century. |
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Buddha Shakyamuni with Kneeling Worshipers In this image from Myanmar, Shakyamuni performs the earth-touching gesture (bhumisparsha mudra) recalling the moment when, challenged by Mara, the Buddha-to-be reaches his right hand down to call the earth to bear witness to his entitlement. According to one legend, the earth, represented here below Shakyamuni, wrung the waters of the earth from her hair and swept away Mara and his armies. The kneeling devotees Mogallana and Shariputra offer flowers to the Buddha. The presence of these important disciples symbolizes the importance of using skillful means and knowledge in the search for enlightenment. |
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Scenes of the Buddha’s Life This easily transportable plaque may have been used for worship in Tibet as the letter “a” is inscribed in Tibetan on the reverse. This kind of small image was likely produced as a memento for the faithful who visited the eastern Indian pilgrimage site of Bodh Gaya, where the Buddha attained spiritual enlightenment. The image of Shakyamuni is surrounded by two sets of figures on the front of the plaque. The outer figures represent the Eight Great Events of the Buddha’s life, including his death and enlightenment. The inner six figures illustrate the life of the Buddha during the first seven weeks after his enlightenment, with the central image representing the first week. |
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Buddha Sarnath, the site where Shakyamuni gave his first teachings, emerged as one of the leading Buddhist centers of India during the Gupta period (ca. 319–500). Buddha sculptures from Sarnath are characterized by their graceful proportions, relaxed postures, clinging drapery, downcast eyes, and slight introspective smiles. The Gupta Sarnath style, particularly the depiction of the Buddha’s thin, clinging robes, was influential throughout India and was transported to Southeast Asia and adopted by artists there. |
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Buddha This image was commissioned by a guild of metalworkers for the sacred festival of a temple most likely located in the city of Nagapattinam. Bamboo poles would have been inserted through the circular holes and these poles would have been used to lift and transport the sculpture. |
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Buddha By the middle of the seventh century Buddhism had become the primary religion of the Mon people. The virtually transparent robes of this buddha reflect the style of Indian images from Sarnath. However, the frontality of this image, its squarish face, broad lips and nose, and prominent joined eyebrows characterize buddha images created in Thailand by the Mon. |
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Buddha and Two Attendants In this sculpture, the Buddha is flanked by the bodhisattvas Avalokiteshvara, to the left, and Vajrapani, to the right. The mythical beast on which the figures stand is usually seen in Hindu art. This unique arrangement may reflect either a misinterpretation of Indian motifs or local beliefs. |
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Crowned Buddha Shakyamuni This seated Buddha holds his hands in the gesture of turning the wheel of the law or preaching (dharmachakra mudra). The sculpture depicts the consecration of Shakyamuni, the historical Buddha, as the king of the Tushita Pure Land, where all the buddhas dwell before their final rebirth on earth. A long Sanskrit inscription on the base lists the donors as Sankarasena, a government official, and his wife Princess Devasri. |
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Crowned Buddha Seated in Meditation and Sheltered by Muchilinda This sculpture depicts the seven-headed serpent king Muchilinda shielding Shakyamuni from a fierce storm, an incident that took place during the Buddha’s sixth week of meditation after his enlightenment. In Cambodia the serpent also played a key role in the mythical origin of Cambodia’s Khmer kings. The snake is the spirit of the irrigating waters in mainland Southeast Asia and is also associated with healing. The adornments on the Buddha call attention to his preeminence and emphasize the Khmer kings’ identification with the Buddha. |
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Crowned Buddha This type of standing crowned and jeweled buddha can be traced to a Khmer Vajrayana (Esoteric) temple built in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries in northeastern Thailand. The gesture of reassurance (abhaya mudra) performed with both hands by this standing buddha is unknown in India. Thai artisans may have misinterpreted the original form of Indian images that had lost one or both hands. |
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Vajrasattva Two forms of Vajrasattva were worshiped in Indonesia: Vajrasattva as the primordial buddha, who is worshiped as the supreme buddha in certain sects; and Vajrasattva as one of the sixteen vajra-deities. This sculpture fits into the latter category and would likely have once been part of a large group of stone deities in a monumental mandala-based arrangement. |